Vector Control Reference Unit (EDRU)

Overview

The Vector Control Reference Unit is a continuation of the Department of Medical Entomology of the old South African Institute for Medical Research. The SAIMR was established in 1914 to research, initially, diseases affecting workers on the gold mines of the Witwatersrand. This brief was extended later to encompass all of the pathology disciplines and to cover most of the country.

Established in 1924 by Dr. Alexander Ingram, the Department of Medical Entomology has enjoyed a long and illustrious history. Headed by Dr. Botha de Meillon from 1930-1960, the Department lead the way in mosquito research showing that the malaria vectors rested inside houses and could be controlled by indoor spraying with pyrethrum insecticide. This work, reported at the League of Nations Pan-African Health Conference in 1936, resulted in Sir Gordon Covell successfully applying this technique for malaria control in India, and later, Dr. Fred Soper, using the same approach eradicated Anopheles gambiae from Brazil. Today, indoor house-spraying with residual insecticides is still a major part of malaria control programmes throughout the world. De Meillon wrote several standard works on insects of medical importance and authored or co-authored over 180 scientific papers.

Succeeding De Meillon as Head of Department, Prof. Fritz Zumpt was an acknowledged expert on myiasis flies and wrote the standard text on this group of insects. Dr. John Ledger followed and revised the popular work by Skaife titled “African Insect Life” and produced a major text on the lice of the sub-Saharan region.

Professor Richard Hunt was Head of Department from 1985 to 1995 and established the genetic basis for current research. He is internationally renowned for colonizing the first Anopheles funestus strain named FUMOZ, which is still in colony at the Vector Control Reference Unit. Professor Maureen Coetzee headed the unit from 1996-2007 and is still an active honorary consultant in the Unit. She led the unit’s research into insecticide resistance and initiated studies on entomopathogenic fungi as well as host/parasite infectivity. Dr. Lizette Koekemoer is the present Head of Department.

The VCRU maintains close ties with other research organisations involved in similar work and collaboration is encouraged. VCRU senior staff hold joint academic appointments with the University of the Witwatersrand.

Contact Us

Staff & Students

Resources

Research

Post-graduate Courses

Services and Courses

Publications

VCRU Links

Contact us

Feel free to give us a buzz!

Vector Control Reference Unit
National Institute for Communicable Diseases
Private Bag X4
Sandringham 2131
South Africa

Tel: +27 (11) 386 6480/2/3/4
Fax: +27 (11) 386 6481

e-mail:

Research Projects

Insecticide resistance in Anopheles funestus in southern Africa

Samples of An. funestus collected inside sprayed houses in northern Kwazulu/Natal and southern Mozambique were found to be resistant to pyrethroids but susceptible to DDT, the carbamate Bendiocarb and organophosphates. Investigations into the mechanisms of the resistance showed that it was metabolic, mediated by the P450 monooxygenase enzymes. Mapping and characterization of the P450s is ongoing.

Studies on the Anopheles gambiae complex

Insecticide resistance and susceptibility studies are being carried out on DDT, dieldrin, pyrethroid and carbamate resistant strains of An. gambiae and DDT, pyrethroid, carbamate and organophosphate resistant strains of An. arabiensis. Molecular and biochemical characterization of the resistance mechanisms is ongoing. The kdr mutation in the sodium channel gene, found to confer pyrethroid resistance in An. gambiae in West Africa, has been found at high frequencies in An. arabiensis but shows no correlation with insecticide resistance.

Novel mosquito control methods

Investigations into the effect of entomopathogenic fungi on insecticide resistant vector colonies housed at the VCRU are underway. Mosquitoes are exposed to two different fungi, Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae, commonly found in soils worldwide, and analysed for survival and fungal infection (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Anopheles funestus infected with an entomopathogenic fungus

Vector/parasite interactions

A new facility for culturing malaria parasites and infecting mosquitoes has been established. Optimization of the techniques is currently underway and mosquitoes have been infected with Plasmodium berghei.

Resources

The Vector Control Reference Unit has the following resources available for research purposes:

Mosquito Colonies

The following mosquito colonies are routinely maintained under standard insectary conditions in the Botha de Meillon Insectary and are used both locally and internationally for research:

Anopheles gambiae s.s.	Nigeria (JS3; IAN P20; NAG) • The Gambia (G3) • Cote d’Ivoire (CIG; BOA) • Ghana (SOG; BENROG; GAH) • Liberia (SUA)
An. arabiensis	Zimbabwe (KGB) • Mozambique (MA) • Eritrea (ARER) • South Africa (MALPAN; MBN; MBN-DDT) • Sudan (SENN; SENN-DDT) • Namibia (NAM)
An. merus	South Africa (ZAM; MAF)
An. quadriannulatus	Zimbabwe (SANGWE)
An. funestus	Mozambique (FUMOZ; FUMOZ-R) • Angola (FANG)

Museum Collections

The museum collection of medically important African insects was started in 1934 by Botha de Meillon and is considered to be a national asset. It is the third largest collection of African medically important arthropods in the world, being surpassed only by the Natural History Museum in London and the Smithsonian Institution in Washington DC. The collections include large numbers of Culicidae, Ceratopogonidae, Simuliidae, Phlebotominae, Pthiraptera and Siphonaptera, as well as specimens of other medically important arthropods such as spiders, scorpions and ticks. There are many holotype and paratype specimens from all these groups.

Post-graduate Courses

Biology and Control of African Disease Vectors - MSc by coursework and research report

The Malaria Entomology Research Unit of the University of the Witwatersrand, in conjunction with the Vector Control Reference Unit (VCRU) of the National Institute of Communicable Diseases (NICD), offers this unique MSc by coursework and research report. This 12-month degree, running from July to June of the following year?, covers the following topics:

Introduction to vector-borne diseases
Parasitology
Malaria vector biology
Epidemiology
Molecular methods of insect identification

You will also learn how to rear Anopheles mosquitoes and will receive training in field collection techniques. Hands-on training in Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) assays, Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) and a variety of enzyme assay techniques will be offered. Eligible candidates should have a BSc Honours degree in entomology or equivalent.

Contact Professor Maureen Coetzee
e-mail:

Please note that this course is currently not departmentally funded and students are required to acquire their own course funding

Services and Courses

Insecticide and Repellent Testing

The VCRU has the expertise and resources necessary to conduct limited insecticide testing, especially insecticides used in mosquito control. We are able to conduct scientific tests in order to determine the effectiveness of the insecticides applied to nets or solid surfaces.

Forensic Entomology

Historically, the VCRU was involved in assisting the South African Police Service with identifications of insects found on corpses and at the sites where corpses have been discovered. Results correlated well with forensic pathology estimates of post-mortem intervals.

Diagnostic Services

The VCRU provides an identification service of medically important arthropods for entomologists, medical practitioners and health workers.

Teaching

The VCRU is involved in the teaching of medical entomology as part of the course for the Diploma in Tropical Medicine and Hygiene at the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. We participate in a module on Medical Entomology offered to 3rd year Zoology students. Numerous postgraduate students, from BSc Honours level to PhD, and post-doctoral fellows are supervised by members of the Unit.

A two-week course is offered on an ad hoc basis to train researchers and malaria control personnel in the basic principles of insectary design and management and to provide them with the necessary skills to enable them to identify their local anopheline mosquito fauna at the morphological level. Student intake is restricted to eight per course with a minimum of four.

Basic structure of the course is:

During the first week students rear mosquito colonies in the insectary, receive instruction on insectary design and management, and use morphological keys to identify adults and larvae.
During the second week mosquito rearing and identification of mounted specimens continues. The students also learn mounting techniques and receive tutorials on the principles of genetic techniques for the identification of the Anopheles gambiae complex. Practical demonstrations of these methods are given, but not hands-on experience.
WHO insecticide susceptibility tests and data analysis are taught in the second week.

Interested students should please contact Dr. Lizette Koekemoer or Prof Maureen Coetzee at the contact details below, for further information. Estimated costs per student are US$1000 for the two weeks, excluding airfares. Tel: +27 11 386 6480
Fax: +27 11 386 6481
e-mail:
or

Staff & Students

Staff as at November 2008

Dr Lizette Koekemoer,
Head of Unit

Dr Basil Brooke,
Senior Medical Scientist

Ms Shune Oliver,
Medical Scientist

Ms Riann Christian,
Medical Scientist

Ms Belinda Spillings,
Medical Scientist

Mr Zilindile Zulu,
Laboratory Assistant

Mr Zacharia Mnizi,
Laboratory Assistant

Ms Marche Martheze,
Unit Secretary

Prof Maureen Coetzee
Hon Consultant, NICD; NRF Chair in Medical Entomology & Vector Control, School of Pathology, University of the Witwatersrand.

Prof Richard Hunt,
Associate researcher and honorary professor, School of Animal, Plant & Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand.

Current Students

Dr. Kwan Shik Choi
Korea – Post-doctoral Fellow, Wits

Mr. Givemore Munhenga Zimbabwe – PhD, Wits	Mr Joel Mouatcho Cameroon – PhD, Wits	Mr Sam Vezenegho Cameroon – PhD, Wits
Mr Joseph Stiles-Ocran Ghana – PhD, Wits	Ms Hiba Abdalla Sudan – PhD, Wits	Ms. Minishca Dhoogra South Africa – PhD, Wits
Ms Luisa Nardini South Africa – PhD, Wits	Mr. Mike Lo South Africa – PhD, Wits
Ms Belinda Spillings South Africa – PhD, Wits	Ms Riann Christian South Africa – PhD, Wits
Mr Graham Kloke South Africa – MSc, Wits	Mr. Oliver Wood South Africa – MSc, Wits	Ms Maria Kaiser South Africa – MSc, Wits
Mr Christophe Kikankie DRC – MSc, Wits
Mr Ryan Norton South Africa – BSc Hons, Wits	Ms Jessica Cort South Africa – BSc Hons, Wits

Past Students

1993 Dr Anthony Cornel, South Africa – PhD
1997 Mr Anton van Rensburg, South Africa – MSc
1998 Dr Rehana Abdulla-Khan, Botswana – PhD
1999 Dr Lizette Koekemoer, South Africa – PhD
2000 Dr Emmanuel Temu, Tanzania – PhD and post-doctoral fellow 2001
Dr John Govere, Zimbabwe – PhD
Ms Janet Crous, South Africa – MSc
2000-2001 Dr Sam Awolola, Nigeria – post-doctoral fellow
2001 Dr Basil Brooke, South Africa – PhD
2002 Dr Messay Fettene, Ethiopia – PhD
Mr Yohannes Okbaldet, Eritrea – MSc
2004 Dr Ron Masendu, Zimbabwe – PhD
Ms Manti Weeto, South Africa – MSc
Mr Benson Ntomwa, Namibia – MSc
Mr John Chiphwanya, Malawi – MSc
2004-2005 Dr Eunice Misiani, Kenya – post-doctoral fellow
2005 Mr Joel Mouatcho, Cameroun – MSc
Mr Nicros Mngomezulu, South Africa – MSc
2006 Dr. Dolphine Amenya, Kenya – PhD
2007 Ms Hiba Abdalla, Sudan – MSc
2008 Dr Tondi Matambo, Zimbabwe – PhD
Dr Patricia Okoye,Nigeria – PhD
Dr Marlize Coleman, South Africa – PhD
Mr Sam Vezenegho, Cameroon – MSc

Publications

Publications – last 5 years

WEETO, M.M., KOEKEMOER, L.L., KAMAU, L., HUNT, R.H. & COETZEE, M. 2004. Evaluation of a species-specific PCR assay for the Anopheles funestus group from eleven African countries and Madagascar. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 98: 142-147.

GARROS, C., KOEKEMOER, L.L., KAMAU, L., AWOLOLA, T.S., VAN BORTEL, W., COETZEE, M., COOSEMANS, M. & MANGUIN, S. 2004. Restriction fragment length polymorphism method for the identification of major African and Asian malaria vectors within the Anopheles funestus and An. minimus groups. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 70: 260-265.

GARROS, C., KOEKEMOER, L.L., COETZEE, M., COOSEMANS, M. & MANGUIN, S.2004. A single multiplex assay to identify major malaria vectors within the African Anopheles funestus and the Oriental An. minimus groups. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 70: 583-590.

FETTENE, M., HUNT, R.H., COETZEE, M. & TESSEMA, F. 2004. Behaviour of Anopheles arabiensis and An. quadriannulatus sp. B mosquitoes and malaria transmission in south-western Ethiopia. African Entomology 12: 83-87.

MASENDU, H.T., HUNT, R.H., GOVERE, J., BROOKE, B.D., AWOLOLA, T.S. & COETZEE, M. 2004. The sympatric occurrence of two molecular forms of the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae Giles sensu stricto in Kanyemba, in the Zambezi Valley, Zimbabwe. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 98: 393-396.

COETZEE, M. & FONTENILLE, D. 2004. Advances in the study of Anopheles funestus, a major vector of malaria in Africa. Insect Biochemistry & Molecular Biology 34: 599- 605.

COETZEE, M. 2004. [Editorial] Distribution of the African malaria vectors of the Anopheles gambiae complex. American Journal of Tropical Medicine & Hygiene 70: 103-104.

COETZEE, M. 2005. Malaria and dengue vector biology and control in southern and eastern Africa. Chapter 9. In: Bridging Laboratory and Field Research for Genetic Control of Disease Vectors. Eds: Knols, B.G.J. & Louis, C. Wageningen UR Frontis Series #11, pp 101-109.

DU, W., AWOLOLA, T.S., HOWELL, P., KOEKEMOER, L.L., BROOKE, B.D., BENEDICT, M.Q., COETZEE, M. & ZHENG, L. 2005. Different amino acid substitutions in the GABA receptor confer dieldrin resistance to Anopheles gambiae and Anopheles arabiensis. Insect Molecular Biology 14: 179-183.

MASENDU, H.T., HUNT, R.H., KOEKEMOER, L.L., BROOKE, B.D., GOVERE, J. & COETZEE, M. 2005. Spatial and temporal distributions and insecticide susceptibility of malaria vectors in Zimbabwe. African Entomology 13: 25-34.

HUNT, R.H., BROOKE, B.D., PILLAY, C., KOEKEMOER, L.L. & COETZEE, M. 2005. Laboratory selection for and characteristics of pyrethroid resistance in the malaria vector Anopheles funestus. Medical & Veterinary Entomology 19: 271-275.

MORLAIS, I., GIROD, R., HUNT, R., SIMARD, F. & FONTENILLE, D. 2005. Population structure of Anopheles arabiensis on La Reunion island, Indian Ocean. American Journal of Tropical Medicine & Hygiene 73: 1077-1082.

AWOLOLA, T.S., OYEWOLE, I.O., KOEKEMOER, L.L. & COETZEE, M. 2005. Identification of three members within the Anopheles funestus (Diptera: Culicidae) group and their role in malaria transmission in two ecological zones in Nigeria. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine & Hygiene 99: 525-531.

MICHEL, A.P., INGRASCI, M.J., SCHEMERHORN, B.J., KERN, M., LE GOFF, G., COETZEE, M., ELISSA, N., FONTENILLE, D., VULULE, J., LEHMANN, T., SAGNON, NF., COSTANTINI, C. & BESANSKY, N.J. 2005. Rangewide population genetic structure of the African malaria vector Anopheles funestus. Molecular Ecology 14: 4235-4248.

AWOLOLA, T.S., OYEWOLE, I.O., AMAJOH, C.N., IDOWU, E.T., AJAYI, M.B., ODUOLA, A., MANAFA, O.U., IBRAHIM, K., KOEKEMOER, L.L. & COETZEE, M. 2005. Distribution of the molecular forms of Anopheles gambiae and pyrethroid knock down resistance gene in Nigeria. Acta Tropica 95: 204-209.

WONDJI, C.S., HUNT, R.H., PIGNATELLI, P., STEEN, K., COETZEE, M., BESANSKY, N.J., HEMINGWAY, J. & RANSON, H. 2005. An integrated genetic and physical map for the malaria vector Anopheles funestus. Genetics 171: 1779-1787.

AMENYA, D.A., KOEKEMOER, L.L., VAUGHAN, A., MORGAN, J.C., BROOKE, B.D., HUNT, R.H., RANSON, H., HEMINGWAY, J. & COETZEE, M. 2005. Isolation and sequence analysis of P450 genes from a pyrethroid resistant colony of the major malaria vector Anopheles funestus. DNA Sequence 16: 437-445.

OKBALDET, Y.B., VAN DER LINDE, T.C., HUNT, R.H. & COETZEE, M. 2006. Blood feeding behaviour of Anopheles arabiensis (Diptera: Culicidae) in Elabered sub-zone, Eritrea. African Entomology 14: 123-127

HAMMANN, I.D. & COETZEE, M. (South African Editor) 2006. Arthropod bites and skin infestations. Modern Medicine of South Africa February 2006, pp 33-40.

BROOKE, B.D., HUNT, R.H., MATAMBO, T.S., KOEKEMOER, L.L., VAN WYK, P. & COETZEE, M. 2006. Dieldrin resistance in the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae in Ghana. Medical and Veterinary Entomology 20: 294-299.

NTOMWA, B.N., USUKU, P., GOVERE, J.N., MANGA, L., KOEKEMOER, L.L., HUNT, R.H. & COETZEE, M. 2006. Distribution of members of the Anopheles gambiae complex in Namibia and susceptibility to insecticides used for malaria control. African Entomology 14: 404-406.

KOEKEMOER, L.L., KAMAU, L., GARROS, C., MANGUIN, S., HUNT, R.H. & COETZEE, M. 2006. Impact of the Rift Valley on RFLP typing of the major malaria vector, Anopheles funestus (Diptera: Culicidae). Journal of Medical Entomology 43: 1178-1184.

KENT, R.J., COETZEE, M., MHARAKURWA, S. & NORRIS, D.E. 2006. Feeding and indoor resting behaviour of the mosquito Anopheles longipalpis in an area of hyperendemic malaria transmission in southern Zambia. Medical and Veterinary Entomology 20: 459- 463.

COETZEE, M., VAN WYK, P., BOOMAN, M., KOEKEMOER L.L. & HUNT, R.H. 2006. Insecticide resistance in malaria vector mosquitoes in a gold mining town in Ghana and implications for malaria control. Bulletin of the Société de Pathologie Exotique 99: 400-403.

BIGOGA, J.D., MANGA, L., TITANJI, V.P.K., COETZEE, M. & LEKE, R.G.F. 2007. Malaria vectors and transmission dynamics in coastal south-western Cameroon. Malaria Journal 6: 5.

WONDJI, C.S., MORGAN, J., COETZEE, M., HUNT, R.H., STEEN, K., BLACK, W.C., HEMINGWAY, J. & RANSON, H. 2007. Mapping a quantitative trait locus (QTL) conferring pyrethroid resistance in the African malaria vector Anopheles funestus. BMC Genomics 8: 34.

MOUATCHO, J.C., HARGREAVES, K., KOEKEMOER, L.L., BROOKE, B.D., OLIVER, S.V., HUNT, R.H. & COETZEE, M. 2007. Indoor collections of the Anopheles funestus group (Diptera: Culicidae) in sprayed houses in northern KwaZulu/Natal, South Africa. Malaria Journal 6: 30.

MATAMBO, T.S., BROOKE, B.D., KOEKEMOER, L.L., HUNT, R.H. & COETZEE, M. 2007. Insecticide resistance in Anopheles arabiensis and association with the kdr mutation. Medical and Veterinary Entomology 21: 97-102.

BIGOGA, J.D., MANGA, L., TITANJI, V.P.K., ETANG, J., COETZEE, M. & LEKE, R.G.F. 2007. Susceptibility of Anopheles gambiae Giles (Diptera: Culicidae) to pyrethroids, DDT and carbosulfan in coastal Cameroon. African Entomology 15: 133-139.

NGOMANE, L., NKOSI, B.G., BOOMAN, M., LA GRANGE, J.J.P., KOEKEMOER, L.L. & MAHARAJ, R. 2007. The distribution and abundance of species of the Anopheles funestus group (Diptera: Culicidae) in Mpumalanga Province, South Africa. African Entomology 15: 221-224.

VAN NIEKERK, G., HENNING, M. & COETZEE, M. 2007. Outbreak of myiasis. South African Medical Journal 97: 112-114.

AWOLOLA, T.S., ODUOLA, A., OYEWOLE, I.O., OBANSA, J.B., AMAJOH, C.N., KOEKEMOER, L.L. & COETZEE, M. 2007. Dynamics of knockdown pyrethroid insecticide resistance alleles in a field population of Anopheles gambiae s.s in south-western Nigeria. Journal of Vector-Borne Diseases 44: 181-188.

OKOYE, P.N., BROOKE, B.D., HUNT, R.H. & COETZEE, M. 2007. Relative developmental and reproductive fitness associated with pyrethroid resistance in the major southern African malaria vector Anopheles funestus. Bulletin of Entomological Research 97: 599-605.

ABDALLA, H., MATAMBO, T.S., KOEKEMOER, L.L., MNZAVA, A.E.P., HUNT, R.H. & COETZEE, M. 2008. Insecticide susceptibility and vector status of natural populations of Anopheles arabiensis from Sudan. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine & Hygiene 102: 263-271.

AMENYA, D.A., NAGURAN, R., LO, T-C, M., RANSON, H., SPILLINGS, B.L., WOOD, O.R., BROOKE, B.D., COETZEE, M., & KOEKEMOER, L.L. 2008. Over-expression of a cytochrome p450 (cyp6p9) in a major African malaria vector, Anopheles funestus, resistant to pyrethroids. Insect Molecular Biology 17: 19-25

OKOYE, P.N., BROOKE, B.D., KOEKEMOER, L.L., HUNT, R.H. & COETZEE, M. 2008. Characterisation of DDT, pyrethroid and carbamate resistance in Anopheles funestus from Obuasi, Ghana. Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 102: 591-598.

OKOYE, P.N., BROOKE, B.D., KOEKEMOER, L.L., HUNT, R.H., COETZEE, M. 2008. Inheritance of pyrethroid resistance in the major malaria vector in southern Africa, Anopheles funestus. Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitlogy 102: 275-281.

BROOKE, B.D. 2008. kdr: can a single mutation produce an entire insecticide resistance phenotype? Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 102: 524-525.

FARENHORST, M., FARINA, D., SCHOLTE, E-J., TAKKEN, W., HUNT, R.H., COETZEE, M., KNOLS, B.G. 2008. African water storage pots for the delivery of the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae to the malaria vectors Anopheles gambiae s.s and Anopheles funestus. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 78: 910-916.

COLEMAN, M., COLEMAN, M., MABUSA, A. M., KOK, G., COETZEE, M., DURRHEIM, D.N. 2008. Evaluation of an operational malaria outbreak identification and response system in Mpumalanga Province, South Africa. Malaria Journal 7: 69

SPILLINGS, B.L., COETZEE, M., KOEKEMOER, L.L., BROOKE, B.D. 2008. The effect of a single blood meal on the phenotypic expression of insecticide resistance in the major malaria vector Anopheles funestus . Malaria Journal 7: 226.

VCRU Links

The following are links relevant to the VCRU, and contain pertinent information relating to the work and research of the VCRU.

Malaria Page
Information on history of malaria and life cycle of the malaria parasite.

Malaria The Malaria Foundation International.

Malaria and Drug Resistance

The MARA Project

Malaria Entomology Research Unit (MERU) at WITS