Why are vaccines important?

Vaccination is a simple, safe, and effective way of protecting people against harmful infectious diseases, ensuring that people are protected should they be exposed to the diseases that they have been vaccinated against.

Vaccines use the body’s natural defences to build resistance to specific infections and makes your immune system stronger. They train the immune system to create antibodies, just as it does when it’s exposed to a disease. However, because vaccines contain only killed or weakened forms of viruses or bacteria, they do not cause the disease or put you at risk of its complications. Vaccines teach your body to fight certain diseases without you having to get sick.

Vaccines are one of the most impactful public health interventions in history, delivering wide-ranging benefits to individuals, communities, and health systems. Beyond individual protection, vaccines can contribute to reducing the spread of infections within communities and protecting vulnerable groups such as infants, the elderly, and immunocompromised individuals. Vaccination has led to the global eradication of the previously dreaded disease smallpox, and has brought diseases like poliomyelitis close to eradication in many regions. By preventing infections, vaccines reduce hospitalizations, complications, and long-term disabilities, easing pressure on healthcare systems and resources.

The South African Expanded Programme on Immunization (EPI) programme outlines the vaccination schedule from birth until the age of 12. Why is it important for parents to ensure that their kids don’t miss scheduled vaccination?

Although babies receive antibodies from their mothers during pregnancy and breastfeeding, this immunity only lasts a few months and is not fully protective. It is therefore imperative to vaccinate children in order to provide longer lasting and more complete protection. The South African Expanded Programme on Immunisation (EPI) is designed to provide protection at the most critical stages of a child’s development. The schedule is timed carefully to ensure that the child’s immune system is ready to respond effectively to each vaccine dose. Thus, timely vaccinations ensure that children develop immunity before they are exposed to life-threatening illnesses.

 What should a parent do if they miss any vaccines? Is there a catch-up programme in place?

It’s never too late to vaccinate. If the child has missed any vaccination, catch-up vaccinations are available. A healthcare provider will be able to advise on the appropriate schedule for catch-up vaccines. Some changes may be made to the schedule depending on the age of the child at the time of catch-up vaccination.

 A recommended catch-up immunization schedule and a national field guide for the catch-up of child health interventions are available on the NICD website and provide more information on the process of catch-up of missed vaccination doses (see here).

 Often parents can be dissuaded to go to clinic due to long queues. Are EPI vaccines available in private clinics?

Yes, most private clinics offer vaccinations that are included in both the private and public (EPI) vaccination schedules, with only a small administration/service fee charged sometimes. An appointment has to be booked at these clinics.

 How safe are vaccines?

Before any vaccine is introduced in South Africa, the vaccine undergoes rigorous and stringent testing through multiple phases of clinical trials. In South Africa, the South African Health Products Regulatory Authority carefully evaluate the results of these trials to help ensure that the vaccine meets the highest safety and efficacy standards before being considered suitable for use. Even after approval and widespread use, vaccines continue to be closely monitored. Surveillance systems detect rare or unexpected adverse events, ensuring that any potential safety concerns are rapidly investigated and addressed. In summary, vaccines are among the most thoroughly tested medical products. While minor side effects (such as soreness at the injection site or mild fever) can occur, serious adverse events are extremely rare. The robust, multi-layered safety system—from laboratory research to continuous global monitoring—helps ensure that vaccines remain safe for public use.

 In simple terms, what is vaccine hesitancy and why is it important to talk about it now?

Vaccine hesitancy refers to the refusal or delay in accepting safe vaccines even though vaccination services are available. Vaccine hesitancy not only affects individual and community health in terms of controlling vaccine-preventable diseases, but may also affect the overall success of public health vaccination programmes.

What are the key factors driving vaccine hesitancy in our communities today?

Vaccine hesitancy is a multifaceted and context-specific challenge, influenced by a combination of social, cultural, psychological, and systemic factors. Most often this includes misinformation, lack of knowledge or understanding of vaccines, cultural and/or religious beliefs, perceiving that the risk of infection is low and thus vaccinations are not important, concerns over the safety of vaccines, as well as a general lack of trust in the vaccination process.

 What simple actions can communities take to promote vaccine confidence?

• Talking openly about vaccines with family and friends and in your community in order to identify misinformation and misconceptions and reduce fear about vaccines.
• Use credible sources to obtain reliable information about vaccines and share accurate information.
• Involving trusted local leaders and public figures to encourage communities to vaccinate.

Which diseases should the public be aware of after heavy rains and flooding?

Flood disasters result in an increased risk of various diseases including water- and food-borne, respiratory as well as cutaneous infections. These diseases occur as a result of poor hygiene, sanitation and food safety as well as disruption or damage of health infrastructure and services. Overcrowding that may result due to the disruption of housing may also contribute to the spread of these diseases.

Environmental changes that results in the increased breeding of certain vectors such as mosquitoes may lead to increases of vector-borne diseases such as malaria, Rift Valley and West Nile fevers. Flooding has also been associated with the occurrence of leptospirosis that occurs following contact with flood water that has been contaminated by the urine of infected animals.

How does contaminated water after floods affect people’s health, and which illnesses should the public be on alert for after flooding?

Consumption of water that has been contaminated with faeces of infected persons can cause gastrointestinal diseases such as Hepatitis A virus (HAV), enteric fever (due to either Salmonella Typhi or Salmonella Paratyphi A, B or C), shigellosis and cholera. Other pathogens that can cause gastrointestinal diseases following floods include E. coli (especially enterotoxigenic E. coli), rotavirus and norovirus.

What are the common symptoms of each disease, and what should the public do if they suspect they might have contracted it after flooding?

• Water- and food-borne diseases:
  • HAV: symptomatic HAV can present with or without jaundice, with the former being more common in persons >15 years. Other symptoms include loss of appetite, fatigue, malaise, nausea, vomiting, abdominal discomfort and diarrhoea. For more clinical features, see here
  • Enteric fever: Symptoms of enteric fever include a progressively rising fever that can reach as high as 40 °C, as well as gastrointestinal symptoms. These gastrointestinal symptoms may occur in both children and adults and include abdominal pain or cramps, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhoea. Constipation may also occur, particularly in adults. For more clinical features, see here
  • Shigellosis: features of symptomatic disease include fever, headache, malaise, vomiting and watery diarrhoea (bloody if there is colon involvement). For more clinical features, see here
  • Cholera: typical symptoms include sudden onset of a diarrhoeal illness including vomiting. The diarrhoea is painless, profuse and watery (“rice water” stools) and can have flecks of mucus. Dehydration occurs rapidly if the disease is untreated and can be fatal. Except in children, fever may not occur.
• Respiratory infections: upper and lower respiratory tract infections may occur following exposure to water-borne pathogens, and contaminants contained in flood water such as toxins and pesticides. Clinical features depend on the severity of the illness and include fever, cough, sore throat and difficulty breathing. Pneumonia following exposure to flood water is usually polymicrobial.
• Cutaneous infections: soft tissue and skin infections can occur as a result of trauma and exposure to contaminated water. Typical bacterial causes of soft tissue and skin infections include Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Fungal infections can also occur causing necrotising fasciitis. Other pathogens that have been reported following exposure to flood water include nontuberculous mycobacteria (M. chelonae, M. fortuitum and M. abscessus) as well as less common water-dwelling organisms such as Aeromonas spp. and Vibrio spp.

If any of these diseases is suspected, the individual should seek medical attention immediately.

What health and hygiene measures can the public take to protect themselves from getting sick during and after a flood?

The provision of safe water to affected communities, as well as health education focused on observing hand hygiene and food safety are important.

• Safe water: if the quality of water available for consumption is questionable, purifying the water can be achieved by boiling the water for 1 minute or treating the water with household bleach (1 teaspoon (which contains 5% chlorine) added to 20-25 liters of water, mixed well and left to stand for at least 30 minutes before use).
• Hand hygiene: hands should be washed with soap and clean water
  • before, during, and after the preparation of food
  • before and after eating
  • before and after caring for someone who is ill, particularly if the person had a diarrhoeal illness
  • after using the toilet
  • after changing nappies or cleaning up a child who has used the toilet
• Food safety: this involves the following:
  • separating raw from cooked food
  • cooking food thoroughly
  • keeping food at safe storage temperatures
  • keeping food clean by using clean water for preparation and cooking, as well as using clean raw ingredients

Flooding can disrupt daily life and essential services, increasing the risk of communicable diseases. Staying informed, practising good hygiene, and seeking care early can help protect both individuals and communities.

Hosted by the National Institute for Communicable Diseases (NICD) in collaboration with Wellcome Connecting Science, this second Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) of Bacterial Pathogens in Africa training course takes place from 6–13 March 2026 at the NICD’s Sandringham campus.

This intensive programme brings together experts and emerging researchers to advance skills in pathogen genomics, surveillance, and data analysis, key tools needed to better understand, track, and respond to the growing threat of antimicrobial resistance across Africa.

AMR occurs when bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites no longer respond to the medicines designed to treat them. As resistance increases, common infections become more difficult to treat, leading to prolonged illness, increased healthcare costs, and higher mortality rates. Strengthening technical expertise and surveillance systems is critical to addressing this growing public health threat.

The course provides intensive, hands-on training in antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST), laboratory diagnostics, whole-genome sequencing (WGS), and bioinformatics analysis. Participants are set to gain practical skills in detecting, characterising and interpreting resistance mechanisms in bacterial pathogens, as well as understanding how genomic data can inform public health action and policy decisions.

By integrating laboratory-based practical sessions with computational analysis, the programme bridges the gap between traditional laboratory science and genomic insights, enabling participants to translate data into meaningful surveillance and response strategies.

The second biannual offering of this training reinforces NICD’s ongoing commitment to sustainable skills development and continental collaboration. The programme fosters cross-country networks, promotes data sharing, and encourages harmonised surveillance approaches aligned with global standards.

This collaboration with Wellcome Connecting Science – an international leader in genomics training – will ensure participants are exposed to global best practices, cutting-edge methodologies, and international expertise. This will certify that African scientists are equipped with world-class knowledge to address region-specific AMR challenges.

Strengthening regional expertise in genomic surveillance is particularly important as countries expand their laboratory and sequencing capabilities. Skilled professionals are essential to ensure that data generated across the continent is accurately analysed, interpreted, and translated into effective public health interventions.

The NICD remains committed to supporting efforts to combat AMR through surveillance, research, training and public awareness. By investing in scientific capacity, we are safeguarding the effectiveness of life-saving antimicrobials for current and future generations.

Click here for more information about the training programme.

READ THE FULL MEDIA STATEMENT HERE

To reduce the incidence and risk of malaria, affected communities and malaria control programmes should work closely to remove known mosquito breeding sites, if possible, and ensure optimal coverage of vector control strategies, including indoor-residual spraying and larviciding. Additionally, all residents and visitors in malaria risk areas should make every effort to reduce contact with mosquitoes by limiting outdoor activity after dark, covering up bare skin (not forgetting feet and ankles) when outdoors at night, using mosquito repellents containing at least 10% DEET, ensuring windows/mosquito screens on windows are closed at night, and using bed-nets, fans or air conditioning, if available.

Individuals traveling to high-risk areas within and outside South Africa should consider antimalarial prophylaxis. Doxycycline and atovaquone-proguanil are now available without a prescription from pharmacies and travel clinics. To increase access to malaria prophylactic treatment, doxycycline for malaria chemoprevention has been added to the Essential Medicines List, making it readily available in the public sector. Doxycycline is not recommended for children younger than eight years-of-age, so a healthcare provider should be consulted to determine the most appropriate prophylactic treatment for this age group. Currently, in South Africa, the recommended prophylaxis for pregnant women, mefloquine, is only available through a Section 21 approval process. Where possible, pregnant women should avoid visiting malaria-endemic areas, as they are more prone to serious complications of malaria.

It is important to note that while these pharmaceutical and non-pharmaceutical precautions will substantially reduce the chance of acquiring malaria, the risk is never completely removed. All travellers returning from malaria-transmission areas, including very low-risk ones, should immediately report any flu-like illness that occurs up to three weeks after potential exposure to a healthcare professional. Key symptoms include headache, fever, chills, fatigue, muscle, and joint pain. Children with malaria may present with non-specific symptoms such as fever, loss of appetite, and vomiting. Healthcare workers, particularly those in non-endemic areas, must remember to ask about travel to malaria-transmission areas in all patients who present with fever.

In rare instances, malaria is diagnosed in people with no recent travel history to endemic areas. This is known as odyssean malaria and is caused by infective mosquitoes which have accidentally been transported from malaria-endemic areas to non-malarious areas via various transport mechanisms (sea, air, rail, road). All healthcare practitioners are advised to consider malaria as a differential diagnosis in any patients presenting with a progressive febrile condition (>38°C), even in the absence of travel history to a malaria-endemic region, especially if there is unexplained thrombocytopenia.

Malaria is classified as a category one Notifiable Medical Condition (NMC) in South Africa, which requires immediate reporting via written or electronic notification within 24 hours of diagnosis. It is the responsibility of the healthcare practitioner who makes the diagnosis, following either a positive rapid diagnostic test (RDT) test for malaria and/or a positive result from a blood specimen submitted to a laboratory, to immediately notify the case. While the widely used histidine-rich-protein 2 (HRP2) based falciparum-specific RDTs are still effective in South Africa, falciparum parasites in several Central and Horn of African countries have mutated allowing them to avoid detection by these HRP2-based RDT.  Travel history should be used to guide selection of a malaria diagnostic method.

Malaria risk map, FAQs and further information on malaria prevention are available here.

READ THE FULL UPDATE HERE

Learn how awareness and testing can help stop the spread of HIV.

Watch below:

Let’s talk about HIV

HIV risky behaviours

Update on the measles outbreak in South Africa

Gauteng province measles outbreak updates

Gauteng province continues to report a high number of cases, with 610 laboratory-confirmed cases reported from epi-week 1 to 38 of 2025. The majority of the laboratory-confirmed cases were reported in the metropolitan areas, with the distribution of cases as follows: City of Johannesburg (144), City of Tshwane (310), Ekurhuleni (132), Sedibeng (21), and West Rand (3).

Free State province measles outbreak update

No new cases were reported in week 38 in Free State province. There were 140 cases reported from epi-week 1 to 36 of 2025, with 106/140 (75.7%) cases being children aged 1-14 years.

Limpopo province measles outbreak update

In Limpopo province, 155 laboratory-confirmed measles cases have been reported from epi-week 1 to epi-week 38, with children aged 1-14 years (120/155; 77.4%) being the most affected. From epi-week 27, Limpopo province reported an increase in the number of laboratory-confirmed cases in the Vhembe District Municipality, with 137 cases reported as of the end of epi-week 38.

Mpumalanga province measles outbreak update

In Mpumalanga province, 82 laboratory-confirmed measles cases have been reported from epi-week 1 to week 38, with 66/82 (80.5%) cases being children aged 1-14 years. From epi-week 26 to week 38, there was an increase in laboratory-confirmed cases in Nkangala District Municipality, with 65 laboratory-confirmed cases reported, and 1 new laboratory–confirmed measles case was reported in epi-weeks 37 and none in week 38 in Gert Sibande District Municipality.

Western Cape province measles outbreak update

One new case of measles was reported in Western Cape province in epi week 38. Western Cape province reported 51 laboratory-confirmed measles cases, with 37 cases from epi-week 34 to 38 of 2025 . The majority of laboratory-confirmed cases were reported in the City of Cape Town , which reported 50 cases.

Recommendations for public health interventions

• Measles awareness should be intensified in areas with localised outbreaks in order to alert the communities about the outbreaks and the prevention of the disease.
• Parents should be encouraged to vaccinate their children to protect them against measles infections.
• Parents whose children have missed their scheduled routine measles immunisation vaccine doses are encouraged to take their children for a measles vaccine catch-up dose.
• Measles surveillance should be strengthened nationally to improve case reporting and contact tracing.
• Provinces are urged to conduct measles risk assessment and continue with targeted or supplementary measles immunisation activities or campaigns in areas with low measles coverage and high numbers of children who have either never received vaccines (zero dose areas) or are under vaccinated (children who received one instead of the recommended two measles vaccine doses)
• Public awareness efforts must be intensified to address vaccine hesitancy by engaging with all relevant stakeholders in the affected communities
• Clinicians should report the suspected measles cases and collect blood specimens for laboratory confirmation, and also report patients who develop measles signs and symptoms using the NMC Surveillance System.
• Strengthening routine immunisation services and launching a mass vaccination campaign targeting children up to 15 years of age is also recommended.

Relevant resources, including the case definition, investigation form, and surveillance results, are available on the NICD measles page and the measles-rubella dashboard.

READ THE FULL UPDATE HERE

Following the notification, an investigation was conducted, collecting microbiological records of A. clausii-positive blood cultures from the reporting laboratory from January 2024 to October 2024. Over this period, 11 cases of A. clausii bacteraemia were identified in eight different hospitals across Gauteng and North West provinces. Most of the patients had reported using Enterogermina probiotics prior to the bacteraemia onset. Isolates from four cases and two open packets of Enterogermina probiotic used by the patients were sent to the NICD for whole genome sequencing. The investigation determined Enterogermina probiotic as the likely source for A. clausii bacteraemia

A. clausii, is a non- pathogenic, spore forming Gram positive bacillus, which has demonstrated probiotic properties and significant therapeutic potential. It is commonly prescribed to manage gut dysbiosis and diarrhoea, including antibiotic-associated diarrhoea, by suppressing pathogenic bacteria and promoting anti-inflammatory responses. This species has been utilised in oral bacteriotherapy products like Enterogermina. It is generally safe for most populations, including children and immunocompromised individuals, though caution is needed in severely immunocompromised patients.

The NICD shared a detailed report with the reporting laboratory recommending that all pharmacists at hospitals with A. clausii bacteraemia cases notify the South African Health Products Regulatory Authority (SAHPRA) for further investigation. Hospitals with cases clustering by time and place should conduct further investigations to rule out a healthcare-associated source. Healthcare professionals and patients should be informed of this outbreak and educated on the safe use of probiotics including consideration of patients’ immune status, contra-indications and side effects.

For enquiries and interview requests, please contact: Media@nicd.ac.za 

READ THE FULL MEDIA STATEMENT HERE

Today the institute reports 710 new COVID-19 cases that have been identified in South Africa, which brings the total number of laboratory-confirmed cases to 3 979 836. This increase represents a 6.8% positivity rate.

Today, the NDoH reports 41 deaths, and of these, 10 occurred in the past 24 – 48 hours. This brings the total fatalities to 101,550 to date.

25,515,180 tests have been conducted in both public and private sectors as per the table below.

PROVINCIAL BREAKDOWN

The majority of new cases today are from Gauteng (41%) followed by Western Cape (19%). KwaZulu-Natal accounted for 13%; Eastern Cape accounted for 9%; Mpumalanga and North West each accounted for 5% respectively; Free State accounted for 3%; and Limpopo and Northern Cape each accounted for 2% respectively of today’s cases. The cumulative number of cases by province are shown in the table below:

THE 7-DAY MOVING AVERAGE NUMBER OF NEW CASES BY PROVINCE

The proportion of positive new cases/total new tested today is 6.8%, and is higher than yesterday (5.6%). The 7-day average is 7.4% today, and is lower than yesterday (7.7%). The 7-day moving average daily number of cases has decreased.

For more detailed information, visit the GIS Dashboard.

HOSPITAL ADMISSIONS
There has been an increase of 64 hospital admissions in the past 24 hours. The following table is a summary of reported COVID-19 admissions by sector.

VACCINE UPDATE
For updates on the national vaccine programme, click here.

Thank you for your interest and remember that adhering to the following preventative measures helps to limit your risk of contracting and spreading COVID-19.

• Getting vaccinated for COVID-19
• Wearing your mask properly to cover your nose
• Opting to gather in ventilated spaces
• Avoid unnecessary gatherings
• Keeping a social distance of one meter or more
• Washing your hands regularly in the day with soap and water

For more information on COVID-19, click here.

Today the institute reports 9,253 new COVID-19 cases that have been identified in South Africa, which brings the total number of laboratory-confirmed cases to 3 827 378. This increase represents a 26.6% positivity rate.

Today, the National Department of Health (NDoH) reports 34 deaths and of these, 7 occurred in the past 24 – 48 hours. This brings the total fatalities to 100,505 to date.

24,626,847 tests have been conducted in both public and private sectors as per the table below.

PROVINCIAL BREAKDOWN

The majority of new cases today are from Gauteng Province (40%) followed by KwaZulu-Natal (26%). Western Cape accounted for 14%; Eastern Cape accounted for 7%; Free State accounted for 4%; Mpumalanga and North West each accounted for 3% respectively; Northern Cape accounted for 2%; and Limpopo accounted for 1% of today’s new cases. The cumulative number of cases by province are shown in the table below:

THE 7-DAY MOVING AVERAGE NUMBER OF NEW CASES BY PROVINCE

The proportion of positive new cases/total new tested today is (26.6%), and is higher than yesterday (25.9%). The 7-day average is (22.5%) today, and is higher than yesterday (21.9%). The 7-day moving average daily number of cases has increased.

For more detailed information, visit the GIS Dashboard.

HOSPITAL ADMISSIONS
There has been an increase of 144 hospital admissions in the past 24 hours. The following table is a summary of reported COVID-19 admissions by sector.

VACCINE UPDATE
For updates on the national vaccine programme, click here.

Thank you for your interest and remember that adhering to the following preventative measures helps to limit your risk of contracting and spreading COVID-19.

• Getting vaccinated for COVID-19
• Wearing your mask properly to cover your nose
• Opting to gather in ventilated spaces
• Avoid unnecessary gatherings
• Keeping a social distance of one meter or more
• Washing your hands regularly in the day with soap and water

For more information on COVID-19, click here.
Ends.

Today the institute reports 1,481 new COVID-19 cases that have been identified in South Africa, which brings the total number of laboratory-confirmed cases to 3,728,689. This increase represents a 5.8% positivity rate.

Due to the ongoing audit exercise by the National Department of Health (NDoH), there may be a backlog of COVID-19 mortality cases reported. Today, the NDoH reports 5 deaths and of these, 3 occurred in the past 24 – 48 hours. This brings the total fatalities to 100,075 to date.

23,996,380 tests have been conducted in both public and private sectors as per the table below.

PROVINCIAL BREAKDOWN
The majority of new cases today are from Gauteng (40%), followed by Western Cape (23%).

Kwa-Zulu Natal accounted for 21%; Eastern Cape accounted for 6%; Free State & Mpumalanga each accounted for 3%; North West accounted for 2%; Limpopo & Northern Cape each accounted for 1%  of today’s new cases

The cumulative number of cases by province are shown in the table below:

THE 7-DAY MOVING AVERAGE NUMBER OF NEW CASES BY PROVINCE

The proportion of positive new cases/total new tested today is (5.8%), and is lower than yesterday (8.6%). The 7-day average is (6.1%) today, and is lower than yesterday (6.2%).

For detailed information, visit the GIS Dashboard.

HOSPITAL ADMISSIONS

There has been an increase of 55 hospital admissions in the past 24 hours. The following table is a summary of reported COVID-19 admissions by sector.

VACCINE UPDATE
For updates on the national vaccine programme, click here.

Thank you for your interest and remember that adhering to the following preventative measures helps to limit your risk of contracting and spreading COVID-19:

• Getting vaccinated for COVID-19
• Wearing your mask properly to cover your nose
• Opting to gather in ventilated spaces
• Avoid unnecessary gatherings
• Keeping a social distance of one meter or more
• Washing your hands regularly in the day with soap and water

For more information on COVID-19, click here.